How do you believe Identity is formed Essay Example for Free

How do you believe indistinguishability is bring on EssayIdentity cannot be formed and defined in one family line it is defined in many an(prenominal) ways. Our Identity is formed by our turn tail, culture, diction, belief and environment. Sarah Morris described, Every function around what and us shapes who we became we believe somewhat early(a) and ourselves. (1) In the book Why are all the black kids sitting together in the cafeteria? (2) Shows that individualism is formed by the following category objects possessions, creations, interests, friends, family, work hobbies, practices, habits, choices, values, beliefs, appearance and ethnicity. I agree that individuality is formed in the entire category list higher up together to shape up who we are. However finding who we are is not easy and the more we find out about our self the crack we know who we are. To begin with, individuation is basically the question Who am I? Tatum, 2003, p. 18, himself writes, The a nswer depends in large part on who the world around me says I am. (3) I think this is truthful because populate view other people feedback and suggestion to help us learn more about who we are. One category that affects who we are is our race.Parham, Thomas A, Helms, Janet E article The Influence of sorry Students racial identitudes on preferences for counselors race writes, Racial self-designation (e. g. , black, Negro, Afro-American) was not associated with preferences for either Black or white counselors. In other words, everyone defined themselves contrastingly, and by knowing what race you are it will affect your life. Another example is when you apply for a job or anything there is a race box where you convey to put yourself in one category. The race you check may affect you from getting accepted or not.Therefore, one way individualism could be defined is your race. Another category that defined your identity element is culture. Culture identity is a souls backgrou nd and how you can refer to a roundone. This also means where you are from, what language you speak and your theology. For example, according to Chaim I. Waxman, the video talks about how people mention Jewish and their religion. To put it another way, the way people mention the Jewish it may affect the Jewish by talking about their, politics, religion and culture wise. The video also shows how angry he was about people talking about Jewish.He also talk about how Jewish doesnt reveal themselves in religion in American now. (4) Moreover, one famous poem by Amy Tan called Mother Tongue describes about how people submit fun of her mother because she does not speak English perfectly. Amy Tan emphasizes the idea that we all speak different languages and that we are categorized by the way we speak. I agree that because my receive is similar to her mom, which confirms it. As a result Instead of making fun of people, we should treat everyone the same no matter how they speak. Culture a nd your language is a big part of what make your identity.In Erikson view of identity, he believed that throughout each psyches lifetime, they would experience different conflicts. Then he describe those experience help us throughout our life on figuring out who we are. I agree with Erikson because I believe every experience you have, it will help you learn more about yourself. For example I have the experience to talk in front of judges and students, this has affected me by learning the skill to speak in front of audience. Another reason why I agree with Erikson is because in order to find out what we like, we claim to go out and experience everything and see what we enjoy doing the most.Erik Eriksons theory of identity formation support my statement of identity cannot be formed or defined in one category but in many ways and experience is another way that formed your identity. Although identity could be formed in more than one category but identity could also be formed in more t han one theory. accord to James Marcia, she create a four identity statuses which are1) Identity Diffusion When a person has not yet ideal about or resolved their identity and they have not yet established future life direction. ) Identity Foreclosure When a person is committed to an identity, but that commitment was made without exploration as to what really suits them best. 3) Identity Moratorium When a person is actually experiencing an identity crisis and actively searching for the answers to questions they have about their life commitments. 4) Identity Achievement When a person has solved the identity issues by making commitments to goals, beliefs and values. Both Marcia and Erikson theory of identity formation have their admit perspective while I think two of them is right. We will somehow experience both theories that Marcia and Erikson wrote.Erikson writes, If the Identity vs. Role Confusion crisis is not solved, an adolescent will be confused about their identity and th e roles they should have as adults. The idea is that failure to form ones own identity leads to failure to form a shared identity with others. Which could lead to instability in many areas as an adult. As a result both identity shows that identity is not completed with one specific word or category but in many ways. Furthermore, according to parentteachersupport. org, it states, Forming identity is the most serious function of adolescence, the period amid ages 12 and 25.Without a well-formed identity a person will encounter one problem after another during adult life. With a well-formed identity a person demonstrates a superstar of existence at home with self and experiencing sameness in personality although operating in a variety of roles. While interacting with many different individuals, such a person receives similar reactions on a consistent basis. istent basis. Shows how important a person need to know who they are in order to avoid some problems during our lifetime. Espe cially when you are an adult, you will be struggle during adult life if you dont know who you are.When a person is well formed about his/her identity these are the following description from the same site He is comfortable with who he is and does not try to live the identity of another person. She recognizes and accepts her strengths, limitations, talents, and aptitudes. He chooses which qualities of others and which environments are most beneficial for self grow. She knows what psychological defenses are most appropriate for her in the face of threat and anxiety. He has learned what instincts/intuitions, needs and roles are most useful to his well-being. She is counted upon as an accountable part of a larger whole.This is why it is important to know your identity in order to be cocksure about who you are and recognized your strengths. Not only does identity formed in more than one way but identity also affects your lifetime. According to Formation Education for Parent, Teacher and child, identity means who I truly am or who I believe I truly am and by answering that it contains more than one answer which means identity is more than one answer. It is being said that identity formation is at heart of self-esteem, attitudes, ghostly development, pro-social behavior, healthy relationships and personal accomplishment.Those are just some formation of identity and of course there is more than just those. In the same site, it also describes different kinds of identity such as teacher identity. For instead, parents establish the foundation for identity formation through parenting practices that support growth in personal security, autonomy, initiative, and industry. While teachers wreak to growth in interaction, classroom practices and teaching strategies provide student exercise in those same foundational elements. To summarize this paragraph, there is different kind of formation of identity and many ways to s=describe identity.Hoare defined identity as a sense of who one is as a person and as a contributor to society, it is personal coherence or self- sameness through evolving time, social change, and altered role requirements. Basically this means identity provides one with a sense of who you are. One personal, social and culture influences on identity formation. Terrie Loye describes gender identity as being a male or female, which linked to sexual expression. Her thought about identity is simple because identity is what helps you change and what change you.Bosma and Kunnen (2001) support the idea that peers can act as models and provide diversity and opportunity. On the other hand, I agree with them because your friends influence your behaviors and your personalities that help you change in a good or bad way. Terrie Loye describes the term of culture as the language, beliefs, values and norms, customs, dress, diet, role, noesis and skills. She also describe that culture is a way of life and that culture is passed on from one generati on to the next through the process of socialization. This is very true because of culture is a way to define who I am and its a way of life.Bosma Kunnen also states The relationships with ones family are typically the start and individual experiences, thus providing a foundation for identity formation. For young teenagers, frequent accesses to the Internet or media are aspects which go towards constructing a persons own personal identity. The open University support my statement about identity is formed in more than one category, it states, By examining the requirements of the state, how a child views gender, and the importance of race or place of birth, you will start to understand how each individual can have more than one identity. The article start with the question what is identity? , It states, If identity provides us with the means of answering the question who am I? it might appear to be about personality the sort of person I am. That is only part of the story. This is true, who am I? Is not a easy question to answer. We often describe ourselves by choosing or to identify with a fact identity or group.Identity involves in 1 a link between the personal and the social, 2 some active engagement by those who take up identities, 3being the same as some people and different from others, as indicated by symbols and representations, 4 a tension between how much control I have in constructing my identities and how much control or constraint is exercised over me. As a conclusion, we present ourselves to others through day-by-day interactions, through the way we speak and dress, marking ourselves as the same as those with whom we share an identity and different from those with whom we do not. 5) In other words identity could be formed in many ways that describe who you are such as your personality, culture and more. There have been changes in our lives, in the national arena, in the workplace, in our communities, which means who I am could change over our life depending on our experiences and more. Change has also created new opportunities for redefining ourselves, at home and in the workplace and as members of different ethnicities.

Families need fathers Essay Example for Free

Families require puzzles EssayThe debate, Families need fathers is one in which there are many issues that need to be considered when looking at the question. Family poverty, domestic violence, the effect on children and family stereotypes by society all need to be considered in the debate. Recent surveys keep shown that fathers also need families and therefore fashioning the matter more complicated. Fathers still remain important in our society because family poverty is still largely prevented by the existence of a male, full eon gainers wage in a household. Due to the patriarchal nature of our society, women find it difficult to obtain appropriate work to fit in with custody of children. In a Social Trends survey the rise in mothers works part time form 49 percent in 1973 to 64 percent in 1994. This often means working in low paid, part time jobs with little chance that mothers earnings alone will be able to secrecy the cost of subsistence for themselves, never mind ther e children. Those who do work full time do not necessarily escape from economic dependence, choosing to work and hand for childcare may well prove uneconomic for large numbers of the working class.There is very little publicly provided care which fits the of necessity of working mothers roughly pre school care is part time and infused with the ideology of education, rather thusly care and education. A large proportion of their income is spent on childcare and as childcare in Britain is the most expensive in Europe, lack of affordable childcare prevents the lone mother entering the labour market emphasising the need for fathers, or a male wage in the family.Married men work harder, earn more and are more likely to have a job then other men, according to Rowthorn and Ormerod, therefore preventing family poverty, although the modern woman is striking back. Nowadays it is easier to be a single mother. Welfare benefits, job opportunities, and the donjon of nurseries, playgroups and schools make it easier for single mothers to provide for their families alone. The Family Futures Report conducted by Graeme Leach predicts that by the year 2020 women will have become the main earners in at least(prenominal) half of all households.The feminisation of the work place will force companies to create a mother-track career as many companies will prefer the work of women to men meaning that affordable childcare will become available and the 20 percent pay gap will have disappeared. Even now, womens contributions finished earnings are important in reducing the familys vulnerability to poverty. Families with 1 or 2 children were at the greatest risk of poverty without the earnings of the wife.In 1990, for example, people in households where the husband worked but the wife did not, had a 4 to 6 times higher risk of being in the bottom income quintile then those where both parents were working. Gittins (1993) states that more divorced men remarry showing that women have mor e independence and less need for a relationship, the family does not need a father or male figure to survive. The effect on children growing up without a father is one of the main focuses on the debate as there is a great deal of evidence to suggest that this has an enormous impact on the emotional and physical health of the child.Dennis and Erdos (1993) argued that research into the effect of unparented families showed that unless a child is brought up in the constant atmosphere of human beings negotiating, co-operating, controlling their anger, affecting reconciliations, he (sic) cannot learn what it is to be an effective member of a social group for this he needs the presence of two adults in close interaction constantly in his immediate environment. Fatherless families are seen as contributing to the rise of educational failure, welfare dependency, and involvement in crime and drug abuse among young people, especially young boys from council estates. Indeed, only a imbibe of persistent young offenders lived with two parents and that included step parents and mothers boyfriends, 4 out of 5 children going into care have lone parents and on American and British council estates it was found that the higher the percentage of lone parent households, the higher the percentage of crime and burglary.These statistics show that it is not just families that need fathers society also needs them as well. The concern for the effect of divorce on children is being researched more and more as divorce rates are becoming higher, one in three marriages now end in divorce and the effect on children is being examined closely. Rowthorn and Ormerod state that on every measure of achievement and emotional condition, children reenforcement with their married parents usually do better then other children although it is often hard to distinguish between the effects of marriage and divorce and other factors such as poverty and racism.Nevertheless, divorce often means poor exam re sults, damaged health and stress and four times the risk of needing psychiatric attend as a child. Dr Richards took 17,000 children from the National Child Development Survey and monitored their lives at intervals until they were 35. He discovered that children, whose parents had divorced before they were 16, were on average less emotionally stable, left home earlier, and divorced or separated more frequently.However, this study was concerned with children of the middle class in 1958, and from then till now, social attitudes have changed as divorce is much more acceptable then it was in the fifties and therefore children are less affected by it, but most studies show the more involved the father the better developed the child intellectually and socially. This view that children are affected by the absence of a father in the family is one to be contested.The latest research for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation shows that the absence of one or other parent figure from a household is no t the aspect of separation which most effects the childs development. Children are not necessarily harmed by divorce providing the parents split in an amicable fashion and good steadfast contact with the absent father can reduce some of the ill effects of divorce.

History of Bacteria, Penicillin and Germ Theories

History of Bacteria, Penicillin and Germ TheoriesMursal MalekzadehTHE GERM THEORYHow this all began was before the germ speculation was positive. Edward Jenner who was a doctor came up with vaccination. Smallpox was touristy in the 18th century and so legion(predicate) people died imputable to the smallpox. Girls who would milk cows didnt catch smallpox but instead caught variola vaccinia. on that point was no research into disease and infections in the 18th century. Edward Jenner thought of an idea. He thought that people could be protected from smallpox if he would inject them with cowpox so thitherfore in 1794 he tried this idea which judged his prediction right. Also to provide clear present he injected a smallpox victim into the same person he injected cowpox with 2 months after. This caused the person to show no signs of smallpox because he had been injected with cowpox previously. Jenners idea became astray accepted as it cured a lot of smallpox victims. Jenners tech nique of injected cowpox into smallpox victims is now called vaccination. In the 1980s the world wellness organisation suggested that the disease didnt exist anymore due to an international vaccination programme. This got rid of smallpox. Although Edward Jenners theory was correct and theres evidence to prove it but his technique would not be permitted today because its considered unethical to use healthy participants and inject them.In the 18th and 19th century many women who just gave birth were dying within 5 days of their deli very. There were clear symptoms such(prenominal) as vomiting and inflammation of the womb however no one knew why this was happening. Ignaz Semmelweiss was a doctor who worked in the maternity wards. Semmelweiss found out that his medical students would straight away dissect a dead luggage compartment to delivering a baby without washing their hands. This made him think if they had the cause of the disease on their hands from the dead patients previously to their pregnant patients. Semmelweiss knew that the deaths were caused by an infectious operator so therefore he told all his medical students to wash their hands in whip before they went to the maternity ward. This was effect because the death rates dropped to 1% after 2 years. On the another(prenominal) hand other doctors wouldnt agree with Semmelweiss idea because they thought the pain women received after childbirth was due to god punishing them. Washing hands in the 19th century was hard because there wasnt always running warm water and the soap made of chlorinated lime would damage the hands but today everyone washes before and after they do anything.Later in the 1920s Alexander Fleming discovered Penicillin. He noticed a lot of mould on his plates after he came back from holiday. One day he used mould juice which he called penicillin but the problem was that he couldnt get a lot of mould juice because it would go bad so this made him stop doing experiments to prove if pe nicillin would kill bacteria.In 1938 Howard Florey and Ernst Chain did further research into penicillin. One of their experiments were based on 8 mice which they injected 4 of them with bacteria that would kill them and 4 with penicillin. The results showed that the 4 injected with penicillin survived whereas the other remaining 4 died. They could prove that penicillin destroyed bacteria. The next problem was making enough of it for everyone so they went to USA with their mould and the big chemical companies helped them make penicillin. Penicillin is very popular today as it has been used by many to destroy bacterial infections.All these past events influenced Pasteur to come up with the germ theory. The germ theory of disease is thought that infectious diseases are caused by a germ. Louis Pasteur who was a chemist and biologist did a lot of research into the germ theory. In shape to help him with his experiments people such as Robert Koch unquestionable the microscope so that mic roorganisms were visible.Pasteur had an idea that growths that real like mould on food, were from microscopic organisms which were in the air.Pasteur did some experiments to come upon if his prediction was correct so he boiled broth and closed the container and it would be clear however when he added other things that were exposed to the air, he see that microorganisms developed in the broth which caused it to be cloudy. He repeated many more experiments until he came up with a series of experiments which used swan make out flasks because this proved that microorganisms that appear in boiled broth come from the air.In 1845 a disease destroyed silkworms. Pasteur again knew this was due to microorganisms because it was found in the tissues of morbid silkworms, moths and eggs which were possible to see by using a microscope. Pasteur tried to get rid of the disease by identifying the eggs which were infected. This helped to save the silk industry and there was clear evidence of mic roorganisms causing disease.Many people died of infectious diseases but Pasteur did a lot of investigation on these diseases so therefore he developed vaccines against these diseases. Many of Pasteurs investigations and experiments influenced Joseph lister who was a scientist.Pasteur came up with the idea of pasteurisation which is that boiling liquid can effectively remove bacteria or germs. tribe thought that small organisms as germs couldnt destroy larger ones such as humans. Pasteur did further investigation in order to explain the causes of many diseases such as smallpox, anthrax, TB and cholera. He found out that these diseases could be eliminated by vaccination and eventually will leave the body. Pasteur became very successful when he developed vaccinations for Rabies.Joseph Lister was influenced by Pasteurs work. He was a surgeon and used Pasteurs ideologys to make the process of surgery more wholesome which eventually prevented many people from dyingWhen Lister found out about Pasteurs experiments on wine going bad due to microorganisms in the air, he knew that microorganisms present in the air were causing his patients to die after they had survived surgery. This was due to the infection as the open wounds made it easier for the germs to transfer into the body.People would use carbolic deadly to get rid of cattle parasite in fields so Lister thought it could stop wounds from getting infected by cleaning the patients wounds with carbolic demigod as well as soaking the dressings in antiseptic liquid. Listers antiseptic surgery caused the death rate to fall to 15% but before Lister came up with his antiseptic surgery the death rate was high due to the bacteria in the air and the lack of using any antiseptic when doing surgery. recent events that happened include the discovery of Methiciliin in 1960 in order to treat infections caused by bacteria resistant to penicillin.In 2008 the cervical cancer vaccination programme was developed and introduced in UK. It was suggested to vaccinate girls aged 12 against HPV. 3 vaccinations are given every six months. This vaccination helps to protect against types of HPV. In conclusion all these events say us that vaccination is very effective so therefore ever since vaccination was first discovered it has been successful.Referenceshttp//www.abpischools.org.uk/page/modules/infectiousdiseases_timeline/index.cfm?coSiteNavigation_allTopic=1http//www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/pasteur_louis.shtml

Rogier van der Weyden Biography

Rogier wagon trainguard der Weyden BiographyRogier van der Weyden, one of the most well-known and influential Netherlandish painters of the ordinal century, was born in the city of Tournai in Belgium in about 1400. A stark nakeds of a pass overler, after completing his apprenticeship with Robert Campin, he moved to capital of Belgium where he was make the official painter to the city. He alike undertook important commissions for the superior members of the Burgundian woo, including the famous Duke Philip the Good. His career was extremely successful. He quickly established a prosperous mildewshop and an international reputation.Van der Weydens the right way sacred photos reflect an intense personal belief his depictions are oft characterised by a tender, reflective godliness. His expressive, naturalistic style was widely imitated, and set the pattern for Netherlandish characterization and had a profound effect on Europe as a whole.Brussels Official PainterAbout 1427 R ogier van der Weyden was apprenticed to Robert Campin, then a leading painter of Tournai. Because the age of twenty six would capture been rather late for doing that, some scholars argue that the painter probably only form anyy registered when he saw the possibility of establishing himself as an independent subordinate. In his article on van der Weyden for example, A.J. Wauters points out that no text now remains, by which accuracy of the tale that Rogier began his apprenticeship in 1427, as made by the copyist of the register of painters of Tournai, c every(prenominal)ed Recuiel de St. Luc, can be tested. For him the date seems improbable as Rogier was then already a married man of Elisabeth Goffaert and the father of a son named Corneille. It is almost certain for the author, that the copyist must nominate made a mistake, perhaps writing 1427 instead 1417. And, as early(a) as 17th of November 1426, on one of Rogiers visits to Tournai, the Magistrate offered him the wine of ho nour, in recognition of the gleam which he castes on his town. His career had opened already then, under the greatest patronage, says Wauters.In French-speaking Tournai, Rogier was known as de la Pasture. The name was translated to Van der Weyden when he moved to Flemish Brussels. Before 1435, he settled there and was name official painter to the city. The new title led to official commissions such as the four panels on the theme of justice painted for the court way of the Town Hall. They illustrated the justice of Trajan and Herkinbald, a legendary Duke of Brabant, and were intended as a permanent reminder to the judges of their well-known family. This vast project must have taken several years to complete. The first panel bears the date 1439, and it is assumed that the others were finished in the 1440s.Rogier may have puzzle outed as a sculptor in front he became a painter. As a rule, painters in those days were familiar with sculpture. Not only did they polychrome statuary, p rovided one of the challenges to the art of painting was to attain the illusion of sculpture, especially on the outsides of the closes of an altarpiece. Rogiers father is said to have been a sculptor, and Robert Campin is mentioned as both, painter and sculptor. The artist was involved in various works for the city, including designs for nonfunctional schemes and sculptures. It seems that Van der Weyden did not have to travel in search for employment, as we know of only one journey in 1450 he went to Italy, visited Rome and Ferrara (the portrait of Lionello dEste dates from this time, the altar panels at Frankfort and Florence are likely of the same period).The Major CommissionsHis employment as town painter did not stop van der Weyden accept other commissions. Rogier did a great deal of portrait paintings, particularly because after Jan Van Eycks death he was the most renowned painter in the Netherlands. In his time, the court resided mainly in Brussels, where it claimed his ser vices, and the demand for portraits of nobility gradually grew. Brussels was a favourite residence of the Burgundian duke, Philip the Good, for whom Rogier worked, although he was never made an official court painter like Jan van Eyck. It was, however, van der Weyden who produced the most popular portraits of Philip and his son Charles the Bold. The painter attempted to create an ideal image of the Duke. That was exactly what the contemporaries wanted, so his portraiture made van der Weyden very successful and popular. He was sought after by the grandest nobleman and bourgeoisie, who wanted him to record their faces for posterity. Members of the Burgundian court, such as Philips whoreson son Antony, likewise turned to him for portraits, often wanting their own images eternalized in adoration of the divine in a diptych format.Commissions for more public works, especially with child(p) altarpieces, also came van der Weydens way. An example is the great Last Judgment altarpiece orde red by the fabulously wealthy Burgundian chancellor, Nicholas Rolin and his very sacred third wife, Guigonne de Salins. The work was commissioned for Rolins hospital in the Hotel-Dieu in Beaune, where it still hangs. Constructing of the hospital was accepted by Pope Eugenius IV in 1441. The dedication of hospital was to St. Anthony, who is shown in the shutter of the picture (the dedication was changed by Pope Nicolas V to St. John the Baptist, who is prominent in the interior scene of the Last Judgment ). The work began in 1443. The polyptych is the artists largest work, made of fifteen panels of different sizes. It was pose in the end of the nave, behind the altar, in a chapel separated from the nave by a wooden partition, through which patients could unploughed the mass from their hospital beds. It was also the tradition to open the wings of the polyptych on Sundays and feast days.Jean Chevrot, the Bishop of Turnai, had Van der Weyden paint the triptych of the Seven Sacraments , which are Baptism, Communion, Confirmation, Confession, Extreme Unction, hallowed Orders and Matrimony. The masterpiece is a good example of a big appeal the Christian sacraments had in early Netherlandish painting. The acts are presented around the primeval Crucifixion scene. The immensity of the central panel is emphasised by enlarged figures. The figures of St. John and Mary overcame with grief are characteristic feature in Rogiers art.The magnificent strain from the address was commissioned by the Louvain Archers Guild. As an altarpiece it was intended for a chapel in Louvain, but fell into Spanish hands in the sixteenth century. Today, it is on display in the Prado in Madrid.Christs pale body is cosmos taken down from the cross by Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus. The corpse is almost immaculate and shiny aside from his bloody wounds. The crown of thorns hurt his forehead a Roman soldier stubbed his midriff with his spear here are the holes in Jesus hands and feet. Thi s is the central scene of the picture. The corps forms a bow with the upper arm of his mother Mary Magdalene. Her immense sorrow causes her to collapse. In her fall, her body takes on the same incarnation as her sons, implying that her co-suffering. Susie Nash In Northern Renaissance Art points out, that apart from underlining the Virgins co-passion, Jesus and her poses are also brilliantly designed to refer to the patrons of the work, since both evoke the skeleton of a crossbow. Thus while the actual crossbows in the image are tiny, hanging from the tracery in the corners, the poses of Christ and the Virgin stamp the guilds identity on this work in an unmissable way.Each figure in the painting seems to be in the precise place. The sense of movement is limited on every side. Caught in sculptured form, grief and sorrow have nowhere to go remarks gunk Frielnder.Despite the busy narrative and all the figures taking part, Van der Weyden managed to build a win over and intimate atmo sphere, without giving a viewer a sense of crowdedness. The picture combines telling details with dramatic spatial density and unstable rhythm. Like Jan van Eyck, Rogier had the rare ability to combine grandeur of forma and delicacy of detail. The figures are almost life-size and their torment is expressed so passionately that it overwhelms the viewer completely.Rogier van der Weyden often found an inspiration in the genius of Jan van Eyck. Madonna with St. Luke is an example of the influence van Eycks Rolin Madonna had on Rogier. As the town painter of Brussels he must have know and adored this masterpiece, but at the same time he departed from van Eyck with new motifs and ideas, which were posterior used in his own workshop.Typical of the art of van Eyck is the striking atmospheric effect of chiaroscuro. Rogier took over the external elements of the setting, the hall with the three apertures porta on the garden completed by a wall, the two figures with their backs to the spectat or, and the view of both banks of the river. To the younger master the architectural solutions of the elder artist seemed, above all other things, to be worth imitating. Van der Weydens Madonna, as a completely independent representation of this subject, established a new convention. Rogiers saint Luke is not himself painting the Mother of God, like in the earlier pictures, but recording the silverpoint sketch. In Rogiers works is was the content the mattered the most. In order to make the importance of the religious importation stronger, he returned to the dominance of line (the contour was the main tool of expression in fourteenth century art). His figures and surrounding them architecture are always intelligibly and expressively outlined.The monumental Escorial Crucifixion is the largest single panel by the artist. Rogier van der Weyden presented it himself to the Carthusian monastery of Scheut near Brussels in the en of his life, after his eldest son Corneille entered the Cart husian monastery. The monks sold the painting in 1555 to Philip II of Spain. The King placed the painting in the Escorial, where, in the late seventeenth century, it was badly damaged in a fire, which, along with following restorations, left the masterpiece in a very bad state of preservation.The three figures seem very isolated. The figure of venerate John and Saint Mary represent two corresponding images of sorrow. This and their earnest faces make the narrative of the picture hard to read. Unlike his Descent from the Cross, this scene is placed in a stone niche, not in an altar shrine. The artists painted the figures of Virgin Mary and Saint John where we would rather expect sculpture, which reminds us of the cut in stone, monumental Crucifixion groups.We could still see them today in some performes. The stone-coloured garments, with definite, harsh folds, emphasize the sculptural quality of the picture and may also suggest the white habits of the Carthusian monks. The sculptur es were often placed against real or painted fabrics. Rogier used a bright red cloth of honour, which, contrasting with the slight tones of the panel, emphasises the overall emotional effect of the figures and presents them as saints.Van der Weyden lived in prosperity since arriving in Brussels, and later, as a successful painter in great demand, managed to adjoin his fortune greatly over the thirty years of his career. No wonder than that he could undergo the donation of his huge Crucifixion to the monastery in Scheut, which must have meant a considerable devotion of time and money. Rogier had also enough funds for a number of other gifts to churches in Brussels, and donations to the destitute.Van der Weyden died in 1464 and was buried in the cathedral of Brussels, Saint Gudule. The artists genius was honoured with a requiem service. Van der Weydens son, his grandson, and his great-grandson, all became painters, but none of them shared his success.ConclusionRogiers influence and fame reached far and wide from Brussels, all the way to Germany, Italy and Spain. In the studios of the Netherlands it ruled pictorial invention and methods of work throughout the second half of the century. Van der Weyden run a large workshop where copies were being made to his design. The students later repeated Rogiers compositional ideas, with more or less success.In van der Weydens time there was no simple divide surrounded by ecclesiastical and secular patronage. The bishops and heads of religious houses often came from the same noble families as the courtiers. All the personages who have been identified as donors of altarpiece of Rogiers hand (Pieter Bladelin, Nicolas Rolin, Jean de Chevrot, the Bishop of Tournai) were exalted men who had grown great in the favour of the court. His art was well suited to express the sombre splendour of secular as well as religious ceremonial, and it appealed especially to the dignitaries of the church.The position Van der Weyden had achiev ed through his art could be illustrated by his association with the highest levels of society. He belonged to the prestigious confraternity of the Holy Cross in the church of St-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg and prospered sufficiently to make not only investments in Tournai stock but also, as I have already mentioned, he was able to present religious foundations with gifts, particularly to the Carterhouses of Scheut and Herinnes where his son was a monk.However, the access to one of the greatest painters of the age was not restricted to dignitaries of church and state. Van der Weydens service was available to all who could afford it. Corporate commissions, such as that of the Louvain Archers Guild for the Descent from the Cross, could involve lower-ranking members of society in the commissioning the work of art. The Descent from the Cross is probably Rogier van der Weydens most impressive work. According to Davies, this picture alone makes it easy to credit that Rogier was the dominating p ainter of the north in the fifteenth century A model of pity, so much then in peoples minds, clear presentation of forms easily recognised strong and sincere piety spirituality without strangeness technical mastery. The Descent from the Cross made a profound impression on his contemporaries, as testified by many copies and copies and imitations, and it almost certainly established Rogiers fame. Susie Nash adds The originality of these figures, and the beauty of their shapes were so powerful that artists repeated them throughout Europe for a hundred of years this is arguably the most influential painting of the fifteenth century.In Early Netherlandish Art Max Frielnder talks about two cogent reasons why Rogier van der Weyden became the most influential painter of the fifteenth century outside Italy firstly, his retrospective, completely non-revolutionary art was in harmony with the traditional tendencies still existing everywhere, and secondly, the essential character of his style p roclaimed itself, not, as in the works in van Eyck, in the execution, but in the design, for which reason it was easier to learn and led to a more or less satisfactory result, even if the pupil was incapable of rising to the height of master ship. Even a retrospective artist is, however, up to a certain point, limited to the artistic tendencies of his own time. Van der Weyden was often obedient to the stylistic demands of the new naturalism. He had to struggle to achieve a certain lifelikeness of effect, which in his works, is not an essential factor as it is in the works of Robert Campin and van Eyck. This is why fifteenth century painters outside the Netherlands, especially the Germans Spaniards, and French, became familiar with the new Flemish realism through the works of the most naturalistic of all old Netherlandish masters.Rogiers influence goes into breadth. His component part consists of ideas, types, themes, joy and the sound of music on the one hand, dramatic tension and moral grandeur on the other.BibiographyLudwig Baldass, Jan van Eyck, Phaidon Publishers Inc., New York, 1952Jan Bialostocki, Sztuka cenniejsza niz zloto, Tom 1., Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 1991 ex Bochnak, Historia Sztuki Nowozytnej, Tom 1., Panstwowe Wydawnictow Naukowe, Warszawa Krakow 1985Davies M., Netherlandish Primitives Rogier van der Weyden and Robert Campin, The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 71, No. 141 (Sep., 1937), pp. 140-145,Valentin Denis, All the Paintings of Jan Van Eyck, Vol. IV in the Complete Library of World Art, Oldbourne Press, London 1961Brian Fallon, Van Eyck, Studies An Irish Quarterly Review, Vol. 71. No. 284 (Winter 1982), pp. 360-377Max Friedlnder, Early Netherlandish Painting, Vol. I, The Van Eycks Petrus Christus, A.W. Sijthoff, Leyden 1967Max Friedlnder, Early Netherlandish Painting, From Van Eyck to Bruegel, Phaidon Press Ltd., London 1956Davies M., Rogier van der Weyden. An essay with a scathing catalogue of paintings assi gned to him and to Robert Campin, Phaidon Press Ltd., London 1972Susie Nash, Northern Renaissance Art, Oxford University Press, 2008Wauters A.J., Rogier van der Weyden I, The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 22, No. 116 (Nov., 1912), pp. 75-82http//hoocher.com/Rogier_van_der_Weyden/Rogier_van_der_Weyden.htmhttp//www.nationalgellery.org.ukhttp//artbible.infohttp//www.wga.hu

The theory of normalisation

The speculation of normalisationHoward Parker and colleagues (1995) have had a dominant role in the maturation of the normalisation thesis. They argue that outlawed dose using up is no longer a sign of deviant behaviour in relation to crime, but a central part of youth culture referable to freedom of choice and consumption, it has become recreational rather than problematic. They predicted that within a few years time, the unripened people that had non tried medicines would be the minority and therefore be the deviants. They also argue that post-modern Britain has an increasing issue of globalisation and consumption that has affected the affix of drug character as globalisation immorals that trade and accessibility of drugs is more common and easier, and having sp ar m bingley due to the labour market and a longer childhood allows young people to shoot down freely. In this essay I will further discuss the theory of normalisation by Parker et al.Parker, Williams and Ald ridge (2002) social function the normalisation theory to measure sensible recreational drug use. These drugs include freighternabis, amphetamines, LSD and ecstasy, sensible drug use does not include using a combination of these drugs at one time or using them on a daily basis due to addiction (Parker et al., 1998). Parker, Measham and Aldridge (1995) argue that drug use moved from deviant subcultures, such as the Mods and Hippies from the 1960s-1970s, to mainstream youth culture in the 1980s when the rave scene occurred. This leap culture became normalised as it was a recreational leisure pursuit of young people that introduced an appealing unused drug, ecstasy.British surveys have shown that the late teens and early twenties be the main users of illicit drugs (ISDD 1994). The normalisation theory was introduced so to rule out the stigma about young people that take recreational drugs as the majority are not deviant or involved in crime. The trends in drug use have altered from the addiction of hard drugs, such as cocaine and heroin, to drugs that are used by the modern youth culture in leisure activities, including alcohol, chamberpotnabis and ecstasy (Muncie 1999). Although this may provoke crime that is out of character due to being under the influence, it does not create a lifestyle of crime which heroin may. For example, in order for class A drug addicts to fuel their habbit they change state to criminal acts such as burglary and mugging. Yet when a young person uses ecstasy or cannabis it is for leisure and does not necessarily cause the sepa position to partake in a criminal offence. However, Professor David Nutt was recently asked to resign as the chair of the ACMD (Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs) due to declaring that alcohol and tobacco are more dangerous for the human health than illegal drugs such as ecstasy, LSD and cannabis. He wrote in a paper at Kings College, London, that the legal drug alcohol ranks 5th as the intimately har mful drug. We could therefore argue that the consumption of alcohol is normal in society despite the harm it can cause. Also, althoughDavid nutt smoking,,, public bans it is now marginalisedAlcohol is companionable activity,,, but well-nigh become dependant. abuse of any substance can cause issues to health or dissemble on family members.Although Parker et al. (1998) does not fully undertake postmodernism as structural inquality still exists, they believe that young peoples behaviour and choices have changed towards drugs due to a post-modern society that allows them to consume freely. For example, Mott and Mirrlees-Black (1993) found that the number of 16-19 year olds using cannabis more than doubled from 1983 to 1991. Normalisation has become an indicator of changes in social behaviour and cultural perspectives, meat that the opinion about some illicit drugs has changed within the youth culture which in return affects their social behaviour as they do not imply that using th e drug is wrong or immoral. However, it could be argued that it is overgeneralizing to assume that all young people see drug use as normal, Dowds and Redfern (1994) found that some two-thirds of 12-15 year olds saw taking cannabis as a serious offense.Hunt and Stevens (2004) suggest that the government and media use drug normalisation as the verification for an increased disciplinary regulation and endorse policies as it is learned to be a drug outbreak that needs to be broken or finished. For example, drug interrogatory has been introduced in some schools to help prevent usage by young people (Craver, 2004).Illicit drug use is frequently associated with the youth culture, Robson (1994) points out that the most common time for using or trying drugs is among the ages of eighteen and twenty- intravenous feeding. It is suggested that this is due to adolescents being the time of experimentation in many aspects of life which can lead to rebellion. Coleman (199213) suggests a psychoa nalytical-theory of three main reasons why young people and drugs are linked together adolescence is a time of vulnerabilty as well as being impressionable, of rebellion and non-conformity and the need to be independant by disengaging from family relationships.These changes through adolescence support Colemans sociological theory that youth culture experiment in different social aspects of life, such as subcultures and trends or sexualities and in this case drugs. In relation to the normalisation theory, young people are able to experiment with drugs due to the abundant availabilty of them as well as the access young people have to them due to people they know (Barton 2003).EVALUATIONIt is argued that the claims about the normality and extreme use of illicit drugs is over exaggerated and in fact illicit drugs have always been an underlying issue and therefore society has not suffered an instant or radical change due to industrial or post-modern reasons. For example, in 1932 Aldous Huxley discusses a hallucinogen called soma, showing the existence of drugs in previous decades.if ever by some unlucky chance such a crevice of time should yawn in the solid substance of their distractions, there is always soma, delicious soma, half a gramme for a half holiday, a gramme for a weekend, two grammes for a trip to the gorgeous East, three for a dark eternity on the moon. (Huxley, 1932 49)Illicit drugs have always been present within society but throughout time the drugs have changed to match different subcultures and trends, such as hippies in the 1970s were associated with using LSD, Mods in the 1960s were associated with amphetamines and todays youth culture is associated with dance drugs such as ecstasy (South, 1997).LOOK AT S+N.. dispute between frequency and normallcyShiner and Newburn (1997) argue that the normalisation theory focuses on the measure of lifetime illicit drug use. They point out that if evidence of drug use is measured in shorter time frames such as within the last month or week, there is a dramatic decline in the results of illicit drug use. This is also relevant to the media panic over dance drugs such as ecstasy, amphetamines and LSD in which the media has exaggerated a high rate of use within youth culture. Yet ecstasy is one of the least addictive drugs and tends to be taken less regularly, for example when someone takes an ecstasy birth control pill in a clubbing atmosphere they are less likely consume alcohol which can be an equally as dangerous drug if drank in access (Coleman, 1992).Shiner and Newburn also point out that when time frames such as whether or not the respondent has used any dance drugs in the last year are used, it was found that one in twenty young people said they had. Also, only one in four 16 to 25 year olds said they had used cannabis, the most commonly used illicit drug, in the last year.Overall, Shiner and Newburn criticise the normalisation theory as although there is an increase in the numbers of young people using illicit drugs, it overgeneralizes young people as it does not necessarily mean that they all see it as normal due to conservative norms and values about drug use still existing to many people and they view illicit drug use as wrong or bad. This challenges the argument by Parker et al. (1995) that soon the young people that were not using drugs would be in the minority and therefore be the deviant subculture. However, it is important to remember that Shiner and Newburn are evaluating the work of Parker et al. in 1995. Their work about normalisation in 1998 does include that young people view each drug differently and their decision to take illicit drugs is complex and sophisticated (Barton, 2003121-122).It could also be argued that illicit drug use only appears to have become normalised due to a moral panic, a term that is commonly used to describe media stimulated over-reaction to subcultures, such as youth groups and issues within society. Stanley Cohen (197 3) coined the term moral panic in the 1960s as a result of over exaggerated reports about the feud between the Mods and Rockers, he noted that moral panics tend to focus on topics concerning the actions of young people. Other sociologist such as Goode and Ben-Yehuda (1994) suggest that moral panics occur when a balance wheel of society feel that the folk devils (as suggested by the media) have become a threat to society and social order. For example, when the rave scene occurred there was a new folk devil associated with the acid house dance culture and ecstasy that became normalised among the youth culture.Ecstasy has had huge media coverage, especially since the cobblers last of Leah Betts in 1995 after she took one ecstasy pill on her 18th birthday. Leah collapsed in to a coma four hours after taking the tablet and died three days later. The police claimed the death was due to the tablet being contaminated, this resulted in the media using the tragedy to create a panic about th e effects of the drug within society. However, it was later revealed that Leah did not die directly from the ecstasy pill but from drinking an excessive amount of water in reaction to dehydration from the drug.

Justice in Platos Republic :: Papers Justice Plato Republic Essays

Justice in Platos RepublicJustice. What is justice? In this world where many people look out only if for themselves, justice can be considered the happiness of oneself. But because selfish men do not always decide our standards in bon ton, to dislodge a definition, society should look at the opinions of many. Just as in the modern society to which we live, where everyone feels justice has a different meaning, the society of Plato also struggled with the same problem. In this paper, I will look into the Republic, one of the books of Plato that resides heavily on defining an answer to the meaning of Justice, and try to find an absolute definition. I will also confuse my opinion on what I personally think justice is.During the time Socrates and his fellow citizens spent looking for a definition, they came across many different examples. well-known(a) Athenians, such as Polemarchus, bring out their own definitions of what justice is, with examples alike Justice is Doing the right th ing, or Giving everyone his due. But soon after these definitions on justice were given, they were shot down by the quick wits of Socrates. Throughout the books of The Republic, I enjoyed reading the many ways that Plato picked apart the flaws in examples by others. It seems that Plato could find flaws without spending much time actually examining the definition. Friends and men of Athens had to restate and restructure their definitions time in and time out during the search for the meaning of Justice. Without the scientific discipline that Plato possessed in examining faults in definitions, one can quickly assume that a faulty definition works to be true. I did this many times while reading through different definitions. For example, the definition Polemarchus gives in section two of book one, saying that justice is giving everyone what is appropriate to him. To me, an example like this would fit as a definition, because without much examination, it works well for most situations . For example, if a man is goodish, then an appropriate return for his goodness is to be good back to him. But if a man acts in a bad or troublesome way, an equally bad punishment is needed to counter his actions. I see this fitting, but Socrates of course easily found a flaw, finding this definition useless if followed, because of there not being a person scoop up at benefiting friends and harming enemies.

Lincolns Legacy :: essays research papers

capital of Nebraskas LegacyA legacy is something that is passed down from a predecessor. Lincolnslegacy is the teachings that he had wanted on the whole of us, as American citizens, to pass by. In the Gettysburg Address, Lincoln explained what ourresponsibilities as American citizens are. His concepts tie all off U.S.history together and aid the prosperity of our country.     In the Gettysburg Address, Lincoln stated that all men are created equal.He was restating the beliefs of Thomas Jefferson when Jefferson wrote theDeclaration of Independence. Lincoln was trying to explain to us that unityplays a major role in our lives. mediocre as Jefferson stated many yearspreviously, we must treat all men as our brothers in order to keep theAmerican society united.     Lincoln also stated that a great civil war is something that is verydifficult for a nation to endure. The Constitution states that we must createand maintain a more perfect union. That is impossible when we are fightingagainst ourselves. Lincoln said that "A house divided against itself can notstand." This is what James Madison, "the father of the constitution," meant inthe constitution. We must compromise to solve our disagreements and keep ourcountry together.     The idea that many men had died for our country and that we should notforget them was strongly emphasized in he Gettysburg Address. In the Bill ofRights it is conveyed that no person should be deprived of their basic rights.These men that died in order that we could all be sovereign, and that nobodycould own anyone else, were deprived of everything when their lives were taken.It is our responsibility to never forget what they have so bravely done for us.